Feature 32. Head-dependent orders

found in question(s): 71, 72a, 72b, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 84, 85

Definition and illustration

Traditionally, many word order properties are described in terms of the relative order of a head and its dependent(s). A head can be defined as that element within a constituent that determines its overall category. For instance, an adnominal adjective is a dependent of a head noun within a noun phrase (question 71). In the example yellow leaves, the adjective yellow is the dependent and leaves is the head noun. An adnominal adjective can either precede (Adj-N) or follow a head noun (N-Adj).

(1) South Bolivian Quechua

(2) Akan

Except for question 86, which addresses the relative order within appositions that by definition lack a head-dependent distinction, all questions within part 9 of the questionnaire can be described in terms of the relative order of a head and its dependent(s). The features are included in this database as a background test to check for consistency in terms of cross-linguistic correlations and consistency within each individual language. In some cases, the status of head and dependent is disputed, e.g. whether a demonstrative is the head of a DP or the dependent of an NP (see also feature 30 on articles).

Correlations

Previous research has shown that there are cross-linguistic correlations between the order of object and verb (OV/VO) and some of the other head-dependent pairs (e.g., Dryer 2007, Hölzl 2024, accepted, see also the literature used to create the questionnaire). These are listed in the following. Note that there are further correlations between some of the individual categories (e.g., between adjectives and numerals or between adnominal possessors and relative clauses) that are not addressed here in detail.

Question 71: Is there a class of adjectives and if yes, what is their relative order with respect to the head noun?

Adjectives (Adj) probably show no direct correlation with O-V/V-O, but there are clear areal patterns (e.g., Eurasia often has O-V and Adj-N and Africa often V-O and N-Adj). All of the languages in the sample exhibit a class of adjectives, although this seems to attach to the end of the head noun in some cases (e.g., Mooré, Ninkaré).

Question 72: What is the relative order of adnominal demonstrative, quantifier, and head noun?

Adnominal demonstratives (Dem) probably show no direct correlation with O-V/V-O, but there are areal patterns (e.g., Eurasia often has O-V and Dem-N). There might be a correlation of O-V with N-Quant and possibly of V-O with Quant-N, especially outside of Africa. Furthermore, in languages with V-O order, the quantifier is often placed outside of the demonstrative (further away from the head noun) (see Dryer 2022).

Question 73: What is the relative order of numeral, (classifier,) and head noun?

Numerals (Num) probably show no direct correlation with O-V/V-O, but there are clear areal patterns (e.g., Eurasia often has O-V and Num-N). Note that there are correlations with respect to the base in complex numerals that were not tested within this database (Allassonnière-Tang & Her 2020).

Question 74: What is the relative order of adnominal demonstratives, adjectives, and numerals in a noun phrase?

There is probably no direct correlation with O-V/V-O. This question rather addresses the cross-categorial harmony and mirror image effects before and after the head noun. Some of the relative orders are very common while others are cross-linguistically rare (see Dryer 2018). A few languages allow more than one word order.

(3) Akan

(4) Akan

Question 75: What is the relative order of adnominal interrogative and head noun?

Note that this feature only includes selective interrogatives (Int) meaning 'which', but does not include other types, such as kind ('what kind of') or quantity interrogatives ('how many/much'). This feature has not been addressed in large cross-linguistic samples, which is why correlations (if any) remain uncertain. There are areal patterns (e.g., Eurasia often has O-V and Int-N, e.g. Hölzl 2018).

Question 76: What is the relative position of genitive and noun?

Adnominal possessors are often abbreviated as Gen for "genitive" although a genitive case does not need to be present for the testing of this feature. Some languages employ head-marked possession, an ezafe, or juxtaposition instead. Cross-linguistically, head-final Gen-N is slightly more common than N-Gen. Additionally, there are unidirectional correlations: if O-V then Gen-N & if N-Gen then V-O. Note that these are the mirror image of the correlations found for relative clauses (Hölzl 2024). Languages with S-V-O order show no clear-cut correlations although S-V-O & N-Gen is common in Africa (e.g., Dryer 2019).

Question 77: What is the relative position of adposition and noun phrase?

Adpositions (Adp) are usually considered the head of the adpositional phrase. O-V correlates with NP-Adp and V-O with Adp-NP although S-V-O order shows intermediate behavior (e.g., Dryer 2019).

Question 78: What is the relative position of complementizer and clause?

A complementizer (Comp) is often considered the head of the clause (Clause). V-O correlates with Comp-Clause and O-V with Clause-Comp.

Question 79: What is the relative order of copula and copula complement in copula clauses?

The copula (Cop) can be considered the head and the copula complement (CC) the dependent (the terminology is taken from Dixon 2010). O-V correlates with CC-Cop and V-O with Cop-CC.

Question 80: Is there a sentence-initial or -final polar question marker?

Cross-linguistically, there is a general tendency towards sentence-final question markers (Q) that are sometimes considered the head of the sentence (Clause-Q). Additionally, there is a slight (competing) tendency for V-initial languages to have sentence-initial question markers (Q-Clause) and a slight (reinforcing) tendency for V-final languages to have sentence-final question markers (Hölzl & Dhakal 2025).

Question 81: Are there externally headed relative clauses and if yes, what is their position with respect to the head noun?

There is a general tendency towards postnominal relative clauses (N-Rel) that are the dependents of the head noun (or noun phrase). Additionally, there are two unidirectional correlations (if V-O then N-Rel & if Rel-N then O-V) further discussed in feature 1. Note that the feature exhibits the mirror image with respect to adnominal possession (Hölzl 2024).

Question 82: What is the relative order of standard, marker, and adjective in comparative constructions?

Usually, word orders are Adj-Ma-St in V-O languages and St-Ma-Adj in O-V, but the two variables can be independent of each other (e.g., Ma-St-Adj in Mandarin). It is more appropriate to say that Adj-St & Ma-St correlate with V-O and St-Adj & St-Ma with O-V.

Question 83: What is the relative order of subordinate and main/matrix clause?

This feature concerns the relation between two clauses, the main clause (Main) and the subordinate or dependent clause (Sub). Sub-Main correlates with O-V and Main-Sub with V-O, although there is some freedom.

Question 84: What is the relative order of plural word and head noun, if available?

V-O shows no clear correlation to plural words (Pl), but O-V correlates with N-Pl. Note that plural words are relatively rare in the languages of the world and should not be confused with quantifiers. English arguably only has plural words for pronouns (e.g., you guys/all).

Question 85: What is the relative order of subordinator and clause, if available?

Unlike question 83 that addresses the relative order of two clauses, this question addresses the order of subordinator (Sub) and its dependent clause (Clause) within a subordinate clause. Sub-Clause correlates with V-O, Clause-Sub slightly less so with O-V.

References